
Baterai bekerja dengan cara mengubah energi kimia menjadi energi listrik. Baterai terdiri dari sejumlah sel volta. Tiap sel terdiri dari 2 sel setengah yang terhubung seri melalui elektrolit konduktif yang berisi anion dan kation. Satu sel setengah termasuk elektrolit dan elektrode negatif, elektrode yang di mana anion melakukan transisi; sel-setengah lainnya termasuk elektrolit dan elektrode positif di mana kation berpindah. Reaksi redoks akan mengisi ulang baterai. Kation akan tereduksi di katode ketika pengisian, sedangkan anion akan teroksidasi di anode ketika pengisian. Ketika digunakan, proses ini dibalik. Elektrodanya tidak bersentuhan satu sama lain, tetapi terhubung via elektrolit.
Beberapa sel menggunakan elektrolit yang berbeda untuk tiap sel setengah. Sebuah separator dapat membuat ion mengalir di antara sel-setengah dan bisa menghindari pencampuran elektrolit.Tiap sel setengah memiliki gaya gerak listrik (GGL), ditentukan dari kemampuannya untuk menggerakkan arus listrik dari dalam ke luar sel. GGL bersih sebuah sel adalah perbedaan GGL masing-masing sel setengah.
Maka, jika elektrode memiliki GGL 𝐸1{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{1}} dan 𝐸2{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2}}, maka GGL bersihnya adalah 𝐸2−𝐸1{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}_{2}-{\mathcal {E}}_{1}}. Dengan kata lain, GGL bersih adalah perbedaan antara potensial reduksi reaksi setengah.
Perbedaan potensial Δ𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑡{\displaystyle \displaystyle {\Delta V_{bat}}} pada kutub baterai dikenal dengan selisih tegangan kutub dan diukur dalam volt. Tegangan kutub sebuah sel yang tidak sedang diisi ulang atau dipakai disebut tegangan rangkaian terbuka dan sama dengan GGL sel. Karena adanya resistensi dalam, tegangan kutub pada sel yang dipakai lebih kecil daripada tegangan rangkaian terbuka dan ketika sel diisi ulang, akan lebih besar daripada tegangan rangkaian terbuka.
Sebuah sel ideal memiliki resistensi (tahanan) dalam yang dapat diabaikan, maka sel tersebut akan menjaga tegangan terminal konstan sebesar 𝐸{\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}} sampai habis, kemudian turun menjadi nol. Jika sel menjaga 1,5 volt dan menyimpan muatan satu coulomb maka pada pelepasan total akan menghasilkan 1,5 joule kerja. Pada sel sebenarnya, resistensi dalam akan meningkat ketika melepas muatan (discharge) dan tegangan rangkaian terbuka juga menurun ketika melepas muatan. Jika tegangan dan hambatan diplot terhadap waktu, maka grafiknya biasanya berbentuk kurva. Tegangan yang muncul melewati kutub sel tergantung dari energi yang dilepas dari reaksi kimia pada elektrode dan elektrolit.
Sel baterai alkalin dan baterai seng karbon memiliki sifat kimia yang berbeda, tetapi menghasilkan GGL yang sama berkisar 1,5 volt. Begitu juga sel NiCd dan NiMH memiliki sifat kimia yang berbeda namun menghasilkan GGL sama sekitar 1,2 volt. Besar energi yang dapat disimpan baterai dipengaruhi oleh dua hal, yaitu tegangan baterai yang bersatuan volt dan kapasitas baterai yang bersatuan Ah. Energi yang disimpan (Wh) = Tegangan baterai (V) x Kapasitas baterai (Ah).Tegangan baterai sendiri secara teoretik hanya dipengaruhi oleh tipe materialnya.
Misal, pada baterai zink klorida, tidak berpengaruh dengan berapapun ukuran baterai, tegangannya ialah 2,12 V. Lalu, kapasitas baterai dipengaruhi oleh ukuran baterai, atau lebih akurat adalah massa material aktif/elektrode yang ada di baterai tersebut.Namun begitu, secara praktikal besar energi spesifik (energi/gram) yang dapat disimpan jauh lebih rendah daripada teoretik. Hal ini disebabkan terdapat komponen-komponen dalam baterai yang menambah berat baterai yaitu elektrolit, separator, current collector, kontainer, terminal, seal, dll. Lalu, terdapat faktor seperti penurunan tegangan yang terjadi karena tiga hal. Yang pertama adalah terdapat hambatan dalam baterai yang disebabkan oleh hambatan ionik dari elektrolit dan juga hambatan elektronik dari komponen aktif baterai. Yang kedua adalah adanya polarisasi aktivasi, yaitu polarisasi yang terjadi karena reaksi elektrokimia pada permukaan elektrode. Yang ketiga adalah polarisasi konsentrasi, yaitu polarisasi yang terjadi karena perbedaan konsentrasi reaktan dengan produk pada elektrode yang disebabkan oleh transfer muatan.
Hingga saat ini, baterai sekunder atau isi ulang yang paling umum digunakan di handphone, laptop, maupun mobil listrik ialah baterai litium ion dengan elektrolit cair berupa LiPF6. Elektrolit tersebut sebenarnya memiliki tingkat keamanan yang relatif rendah dibanding karena sifatnya yang mudah bereaksi dengan udara dan terbakar.
Oleh sebab itulah, saat ini sedang dikembangkan elektrolit padat yang memiliki tingkat keamanan lebih tinggi. Hanya saja, konduktivitas ionik elektrolit padat masih secara umum di bawah elektrolit cair. Dengan begitu, hambatan dalam yang akan dimiliki oleh baterai dengan elektrolit padat secara umum lebih besar dan penurunan tegangan yang akan terjadi juga semakin besar.
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